Massive quantum systems as interfaces of quantum mechanics and gravity

Sougato Bose, Ivette Fuentes, Andrew A. Geraci, Saba Mehsar Khan, Sofia Qvarfort, Markus Rademacher, Muddassar Rashid, Marko Toroš, Hendrik Ulbricht, et al.

The traditional view from particle physics is that quantum-gravity effects should become detectable only at extremely high energies and small length scales. Owing to the significant technological challenges involved, there has been limited progress in identifying experimentally detectable effects that can be accessed in the foreseeable future. However, in recent decades, the size and mass of quantum systems that can be controlled in the laboratory have reached unprecedented scales, enabled by advances in ground-state cooling and quantum-control techniques. Preparations of massive systems in quantum states pave the way for the exploration of a low-energy regime in which gravity can be both sourced and probed by quantum systems. Such approaches constitute an increasingly viable alternative to accelerator-based, laser-interferometric, torsion-balance, and cosmological tests of gravity. This review provides an overview of proposals where massive quantum systems act as interfaces between quantum mechanics and gravity. Conceptual difficulties in the theoretical description of quantum systems in the presence of gravity are discussed, tools for modeling massive quantum systems in the laboratory are reviewed, and an overview of the current state-of-the-art experimental landscape is provided. Proposals covered in this review include precision tests of gravity, tests of gravitationally induced wave-function collapse and decoherence, and gravity-mediated entanglement. The review concludes with an outlook and a summary of the key questions raised.

Training Coupled Phase Oscillators as a Neuromorphic Platform using Equilibrium Propagation

Qingshan Wang, Clara C. Wanjura, Florian Marquardt

Given the rapidly growing scale and resource requirements of machine learning applications, the idea of building more efficient learning machines much closer to the laws of physics is an attractive proposition. One central question for identifying promising candidates for such neuromorphic platforms is whether not only inference but also training can exploit the physical dynamics. In this work, we show that it is possible to successfully train a system of coupled phase oscillators—one of the most widely investigated nonlinear dynamical systems with a multitude of physical implementations, comprising laser arrays, coupled mechanical limit cycles, superfluids, and exciton-polaritons. To this end, we apply the approach of equilibrium propagation, which permits to extract training gradients via a physical realization of backpropagation, based only on local interactions. The complex energy landscape of the XY/Kuramoto model leads to multistability, and we show how to address this challenge. Our study identifies coupled phase oscillators as a new general-purpose neuromorphic platform and opens the door towards future experimental implementations.

Fully Non-Linear Neuromorphic Computing with Linear Wave Scattering

Clara C. Wanjura, Florian Marquardt

The increasing complexity of neural networks and the energy consumption associated with training and inference create a need for alternative neuromorphic approaches, e.g. using optics. Current proposals and implementations rely on physical non-linearities or opto-electronic conversion to realise the required non-linear activation function. However, there are significant challenges with these approaches related to power levels, control, energy-efficiency, and delays. Here, we present a scheme for a neuromorphic system that relies on linear wave scattering and yet achieves non-linear processing with a high expressivity. The key idea is to inject the input via physical parameters that affect the scattering processes. Moreover, we show that gradients needed for training can be directly measured in scattering experiments. We predict classification accuracies on par with results obtained by standard artificial neural networks. Our proposal can be readily implemented with existing state-of-the-art, scalable platforms, e.g. in optics, microwave and electrical circuits, and we propose an integrated-photonics implementation based on racetrack resonators that achieves high connectivity with a minimal number of waveguide crossings.

Quantum Equilibrium Propagation for efficient training of quantum systems based on Onsager reciprocity

Clara C. Wanjura, Florian Marquardt

The widespread adoption of machine learning and artificial intelligence in all branches of science and technology has created a need for energy-efficient, alternative hardware platforms. While such neuromorphic approaches have been proposed and realised for a wide range of platforms, physically extracting the gradients required for training remains challenging as generic approaches only exist in certain cases. Equilibrium propagation (EP) is such a procedure that has been introduced and applied to classical energy-based models which relax to an equilibrium. Here, we show a direct connection between EP and Onsager reciprocity and exploit this to derive a quantum version of EP. This can be used to optimize loss functions that depend on the expectation values of observables of an arbitrary quantum system. Specifically, we illustrate this new concept with supervised and unsupervised learning examples in which the input or the solvable task is of quantum mechanical nature, e.g., the recognition of quantum many-body ground states, quantum phase exploration, sensing and phase boundary exploration. We propose that in the future quantum EP may be used to solve tasks such as quantum phase discovery with a quantum simulator even for Hamiltonians which are numerically hard to simulate or even partially unknown. Our scheme is relevant for a variety of quantum simulation platforms such as ion chains, superconducting qubit arrays, neutral atom Rydberg tweezer arrays and strongly interacting atoms in optical lattices.

Training of Physical Neural Networks

Ali Momeni, Babak Rahmani, Benjamin Scellier, Logan G. Wright, Peter L. McMahon, Clara C. Wanjura, Yuhang Li, Anas Skalli, Natalia G. Berloff, et al.

Physical neural networks (PNNs) are a class of neural-like networks that leverage the properties of physical systems to perform computation. While PNNs are so far a niche research area with small-scale laboratory demonstrations, they are arguably one of the most underappreciated important opportunities in modern AI. Could we train AI models 1000x larger than current ones? Could we do this and also have them perform inference locally and privately on edge devices, such as smartphones or sensors? Research over the past few years has shown that the answer to all these questions is likely "yes, with enough research": PNNs could one day radically change what is possible and practical for AI systems. To do this will however require rethinking both how AI models work, and how they are trained - primarily by considering the problems through the constraints of the underlying hardware physics. To train PNNs at large scale, many methods including backpropagation-based and backpropagation-free approaches are now being explored. These methods have various trade-offs, and so far no method has been shown to scale to the same scale and performance as the backpropagation algorithm widely used in deep learning today. However, this is rapidly changing, and a diverse ecosystem of training techniques provides clues for how PNNs may one day be utilized to create both more efficient realizations of current-scale AI models, and to enable unprecedented-scale models.

Detailed balance in non-equilibrium dynamics of granular matter: derivation and implications

Clara C. Wanjura, Amelie Mayländer, Othmar Marti, Raphael Blumenfeld

Discovering fundamental principles governing the dynamics of granular media has been a long-standing challenge. Recent predictions of detailed balance steady states (DBSS), supported by experimental observations in cyclic shear experiments of planar granular systems, called into question the common belief that the detailed balance principle is only a feature of equilibrium. Here, we first show analytically that DBSS in planar granular dynamics arise when a certain conditional cell order distribution is independent of the condition. We then demonstrate that this condition is met in rotational shear experiments, which indeed also give rise to robust DBSS. This suggests that DBSS not only exist but are also quite common. We also show that, when the unconditional cell order distribution maximises the entropy, as has been found recently, then this distribution is determined by a single parameter - the ratio of splitting and merging rates of cells of any arbitrary order. These results simplify the modelling of the complex dynamics of planar granular systems to the solution of recently proposed evolution equations, demonstrating their predictive power.<br>

Optomechanical realization of the bosonic Kitaev chain

Jesse J. Slim, Clara C. Wanjura, Matteo Brunelli, Javier del Pino, Andreas Nunnenkamp, Ewold Verhagen

The fermionic Kitaev chain is a canonical model featuring topological Majorana zero modes. We report the experimental realization of its bosonic analogue in a nanooptomechanical network, in which the parametric interactions induce beam-splitter coupling and two-mode squeezing among the nanomechanical modes, analogous to hopping and p-wave pairing in the fermionic case, respectively. This specific structure gives rise to a set of extraordinary phenomena in the bosonic dynamics and transport. We observe quadrature-dependent chiral amplification, exponential scaling of the gain with system size and strong sensitivity to boundary conditions. All these are linked to the unique non-Hermitian topological nature of the bosonic Kitaev chain.<br>We probe the topological phase transition and uncover a rich dynamical phase diagram by controlling interaction phases and amplitudes. Finally, we present an experimental demonstration of an exponentially enhanced response to a small perturbation. These results represent the demonstration of a new synthetic phase of matter whose bosonic dynamics do not have fermionic parallels, and we have established a powerful system for studying non-Hermitian topology and its applications for signal manipulation and sensing.

Restoration of the non-Hermitian bulk-boundary correspondence viatopological amplification

Matteo Brunelli, Clara C. Wanjura, Andreas Nunnenkamp

Non-Hermitian (NH) lattice Hamiltonians display a unique kind of energy gap and ex- treme sensitivity to boundary conditions. Due to the NH skin effect, the separation between edge and bulk states is blurred and the (conventional) bulk-boundary corre- spondence is lost. Here, we restore the bulk-boundary correspondence for the most paradigmatic class of NH Hamiltonians, namely those with one complex band and with- out symmetries. We obtain the desired NH Hamiltonian from the mean-field evolution of driven-dissipative cavity arrays, in which NH terms—in the form of non-reciprocal hopping amplitudes, gain and loss—are explicitly modeled via coupling to (engineered and non-engineered) reservoirs. This approach removes the arbitrariness in the defini- tion of the topological invariant, as point-gapped spectra differing by a complex-energy shift are not treated as equivalent; the origin of the complex plane provides a common reference (base point) for the evaluation of the topological invariant. This implies that topologically non-trivial Hamiltonians are only a strict subset of those with a point gap and that the NH skin effect does not have a topological origin. We analyze the NH Hamil- tonians so obtained via the singular value decomposition, which allows to express the NH bulk-boundary correspondence in the following simple form: an integer value ν of the topological invariant defined in the bulk corresponds to |ν| singular vectors exponen- tially localized at the system edge under open boundary conditions, in which the sign of ν determines which edge. Non-trivial topology manifests as directional amplification of a coherent input with gain exponential in system size. Our work solves an outstanding problem in the theory of NH topological phases and opens up new avenues in topological photonics.

Quadrature nonreciprocity in bosonic networks without breaking time-reversal symmetry

Clara C. Wanjura, Jesse J. Slim, Javier del Pino, Matteo Brunelli, Ewold Verhagen, Andreas Nunnenkamp

Nonreciprocity means that the transmission of a signal depends on its direction of propagation. Despite vastly different platforms and underlying working principles, the realizations of nonreciprocal transport in linear, time-independent systems rely on Aharonov–Bohm interference among several pathways and require breaking time-reversal symmetry. Here we extend the notion of nonreciprocity to unidirectional bosonic transport in systems with a time-reversal symmetric Hamiltonian by exploiting interference between beamsplitter (excitation-preserving) and two-mode-squeezing (excitation non-preserving) interactions. In contrast to standard nonreciprocity, this unidirectional transport manifests when the mode quadratures are resolved with respect to an external reference phase. Accordingly, we dub this phenomenon ‘quadrature nonreciprocity’. We experimentally demonstrate it in the minimal system of two coupled nanomechanical modes orchestrated by optomechanical interactions. Next, we develop a theoretical framework to characterize the class of networks exhibiting quadrature nonreciprocity based on features of their particle–hole graphs. In addition to unidirectionality, these networks can exhibit an even–odd pairing between collective quadratures, which we confirm experimentally in a four-mode system, and an exponential end-to-end gain in the case of arrays of cavities.

Correspondence between Non-Hermitian Topology and Directional Amplification in the Presence of Disorder

Clara C. Wanjura, Matteo Brunelli, Andreas Nunnenkamp

For non-Hermitian (NH) topological effects to be relevant for practical applications, it is necessary to study disordered systems. Without disorder, a class of driven-dissipative cavity arrays displays directional amplification when associated with a nontrivial winding number of the NH dynamic matrix. In this work, we show analytically that the correspondence between NH topology and directional amplification holds even in the presence of disorder. We first demonstrate that an NH topological phase is preserved as long as the size of the point gap—defined as the minimum distance of the disorderless complex spectrum from the origin—is larger than the maximum amount of disorder. The disorder is assumed to be bounded but otherwise general, meaning it can be complex and both local (on-site disorder) and nonlocal (disordered couplings). We then derive analytic bounds for the probability distribution of the scattering matrix elements, showing that the key features of nontrivial NH topology—specifically, that the end-to-end forward gain grows exponentially with system size while the reverse gain is suppressed—are preserved in disordered systems. Our results prove that NH topology in cavity arrays is robust against disorder.

Structural evolution of granular systems: theory

Clara C. Wanjura, Paula Gago, Takashi Matsushima, Raphael Blumenfeld

A general theory is developed for the evolution of the cell order (CO) distribution in planar granular systems. Dynamic equations are constructed and solved in closed form for several examples, including systems under compression, dilation of very dense systems, and the general approach to steady state. We find that all steady states are stable and satisfy a detailed balance-like condition when the CO ≤ 6. Illustrative numerical solutions of the evolution are presented. Our theoretical results are validated against extensive simulations of a sheared system. The formalism can be readily extended to other structural characteristics, paving the way for a general theory of the structural organization of granular systems.

Topological framework for directional amplification in driven-dissipative cavity arrays

Clara C. Wanjura, Matteo Brunelli, Andreas Nunnenkamp

Directional amplification, in which signals are selectively amplified depending on their propagation direction, has attracted much attention as a key resource for applications, including quantum information processing. Recently, several physically very different directional amplifiers have been proposed and realized in the lab. In this work, we present a unifying framework based on topology to understand non-reciprocity and directional amplification in driven-dissipative cavity arrays. Specifically, we unveil a one-to-one correspondence between a non-zero topological invariant defined on the spectrum of the dynamic matrix and regimes of directional amplification, in which the end-to-end gain grows exponentially with the number of cavities. We compute analytically the scattering matrix, the gain, and the reverse gain, showing their explicit dependence on the value of the topological invariant. Parameter regimes achieving directional amplification can be elegantly obtained from a topological ‘phase diagram,’ which provides a guiding principle for the design of both phase-preserving and phase-sensitive multimode directional amplifiers.